As the Pentateuch does not prescribe or proscribe fasting—it does not even mention the primary word for fasting—fasting was treated differently among ancient communities. The most strident groups seem to have fasted only on holy days such as Yom Kippur, when a communal fast was a petition for atonement of the previous year’s sins. However, in the Old Testament and Intertestamental books, fasting is practiced on a number of important occasions besides Yom Kippur.
Yom Kippur is prescribed in Leviticus, which states that the 10th day of the seventh month is a day of atonement (Lev 23:27–28; 25:9). On that day, the Israelites are to humble themselves and present an offering by fire (Lev 23:27). The primary Hebrew root for fasting is not mentioned, but a verb which generally means to humiliate or injure is used (ענה, 'nh). This verb does not specifically refer to fasting, but was probably understood in that regard in the postexilic period and later. This same root appears in later extrabiblical Hebrew and Aramaic texts—including the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Midrashim, and the Talmud—in reference to fasting. These texts refer to fasting with the noun (תַּעֲנִית, ta'anith), which is related to the verb in Leviticus. The only appearance of this noun in the Old Testament is in Ezra 9:5, where it is accompanied by the practices of tearing clothes and praying to God. Given that Ezra is a postexilic book, this particular noun probably came to refer to fasting later. Although Leviticus calls for humbling of oneself or self-affliction, the verb (ענה, 'nh) and Yom Kippur eventually came to be associated with fasting. Fasting was probably obligatory only on Yom Kippur.
In conjunction with the book of Esther, fasting became part of the observance of Purim. Purim is a two-day festival to celebrate the Jews’ deliverance from destruction and their victory over their enemies. Both feasting and fasting are mentioned as observances in Esth 9:25–32. Esther has often been described as an etiology for Purim, which was celebrated with a fast followed by a feast. The earliest reference to a Purim fast is found in the Talmud, which is dated to the fifth century AD. The biblical book of Esther simply mentions feasting and fasting as two Jewish observances. At some point in late antiquity they became connected with Purim.
The extent to which other days are observed with fasting varied among the Jews in antiquity. In the Talmud, fasting varied among Jews. Commemorative days that may include fasting include the day of the destruction of Solomon’s temple and the deaths of important leaders, such as Joshua, Miriam, and Eli the Judge and his sons.
Occasional Fasts
In the Old Testament and Intertestamental books, fasting practiced occasionally. Leviticus and Esther are the only Old Testament books which mention calendrical days related to fasting. Otherwise, fasting is a response to an immediate or impending situation which calls for repentance, protection, or mourning. Since fasting is not clearly prescribed in observance of Yom Kippur and Purim in the Old Testament, occasional fasts are the only type clearly depicted in the Old Testament.
Fasting is associated with repentance and confession. Biblical examples include:
• (1 Sam 7:6) The Israelites fast as a way of turning away from foreign gods and back to the Lord.
• (Jonah 3:4–9) The Ninevites fast when they learn that the city will be overturned in 40 days.
• (Neh 9:1–2) The Israelites fast and confess their sins once all the foreigners are removed from their community.
Fasting is practiced prior to or during a dangerous event, such as military battles It is a means of seeking God’s protection in a dangerous situation. Biblical examples include:
• (Judges 20:26) The Israelites fight the tribe of Benjamin. Despite having more soldiers, they are losing, so they return to their camp and fast and weep. The result is that the Lord defeats the Benjaminites (Judg 20:35).
• (2 Chr 20:1–3) When the Moabites and Ammonites come up against Jehoshaphat in battle, Jehoshaphat proclaims a fast in Judah. The Lord brings victory (2 Chr 20:22).
• (Ezra 8:21–23) A fast is proclaimed prior to the return journey from Babylon to Judaea.
• (Esth 4:16) Esther proclaims a three-day fast for all the Jews in Susa. She is about to risk her life by seeking an audience with the king. The Jews lives are already in danger because Haman has decreed that they all be put to death.
• (Jdt 4:9) The Israelites fast when they find out that Nebuchadnezzar’s general and his army are approaching.
• (Joel 1:13–15) Joel prophesies the day of the Lord which will bring destruction. The audience is told to lament and sanctify a fast.
Fasting occurs in times of mourning. It could also occur when someone is on the brink of death. Biblical examples include:
• (1 Sam 31:12) When Saul and his sons are killed in battle, the men of Jabesh-Gilead fast.
• (2 Sam 1:12) David and his men fast when they learn of Saul’s death.
• (Neh 1:4) Nehemiah fasts when he hears that the gates of Jerusalem have been destroyed and the captives are in danger.
• (Esth 4:3) Similarly, when Haman’s decree to kill the Jews reaches the provinces of the king, there is mourning and fasting for the Jews.
• (Jdt 8:6) Judith fasts all the days of her widowhood except for Sabbaths and festival days. This is a case of prolonged mourning—three years and four months (Jdt 8:4)—which probably indicates the extent of her piety given that she is the one who saves her people.
Bibliography
Brongers, H. A. “Fasting in Israel in Biblical and Post-Biblical Times.” Pages 1–21 in Oudtestamentische Studiën 20. Edited by A.S. van der Woude. Leiden: Brill, 1977.
Montgomery, James A. “Ascetic Strains in Early Judaism.” Journal of Biblical Literature 51 (1932): 183–213.
Pollock, Susan. “Feasts, Funerals and Fast Food in Early Mesopotamian States.” Pages 17–38 in The Archaeology and Politics of Food and Feasting in Early States and Empires. Edited by Tamara L. Bray. New York: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2002.
Scurlock, Jo Ann. “Death and the Afterlife in Ancient Mesopotamian Thought.” Pages 1883–93 in Civilizations of the Ancient Near East. 4 vols. Edited by Jack M. Sasson, et al. Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson Publishers, 1995.
Thuruthimattam, Philip. “Fasting: A Sacramental.” Journal of Dharma 9 (1984): 274–91.
KELLY A. WHITCOMB
Whitcomb, K. A. (2012, 2013, 2014). Fasting. In J. D. Barry, L. Wentz, D. Mangum, C. Sinclair-Wolcott, R. Klippenstein, D. Bomar, … D. R. Brown (Eds.), The Lexham Bible Dictionary. Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press.